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HOV T0TEAGH 



GEOGRAPHY 



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HOW TO TEACH 






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U L 



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JLPHY. 



fi pLA]V[ FOF( AJ\( JJLEJVIEJMTARY 

and y\ Scientific -pouR^E. 



TEachsr of Gsagraphy in the Ulastfield State 
Norma! Snhnnl, 



REVISED EDITION, 




BOSTON : 

EDUCATIONAL PUBLISHING COMPANY, 

1887. 



COPYRIGHT, 1886. 

BY 

EDUCATIONAL PUBLISHING COMPANY, 

50 Bromfield Street, Boston. 






Jtefa> 



ce. 



This little manual is pvEpavad with the 

Earnest hops that it man he of seme service 

tn thnsE teachers who feel ths necessitg of 

giving Dial instructinn in geography, but are 

snmswhat uncertain as tn what and hew 

much should be taught, 

E, C, 

Westfield I^orm/l School, 1887, 



Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2011 with funding from 
The Library of Congress 



http://www.archive.org/details/howtoteachgeograOOcarv 



INTRODUCTION. 



Young children are eager to learn and have a 
wonderful aptitude for gaining knowledge from 
things ; for this reason they must be taught ob- 
jectively. With them the teacher is everything, 
the text-book nothing. 

The first years of a child's school life should be 
devoted to gaining that sort of knowledge and 
that sort of mental discipline which will enable 
him in the upper grades to come to new knowledge 
by thinking, rather than by reading what others 
have thought. For this reason this course in 
geography is divided into two, an Elementary and 
a Scientific Course. The first is adapted to the 
upper primary and intermediate grades, the second 
to the grammar and high school grades. 

Much of the geographical knowledge required 

in the public schools can be gained more easily and 

more accuratel y from a map tban from any de- 
5 



scription ; the early work therefore in this sub- 
ject must be of a kind to enable the children 
to interpret properly a map. They can be pre- 
pared to do this by studying the surface of their 
own town, and in no other way. Moulds are in- 
valuable, but a study of them must follow, not 
precede, the study of the surface which they rep- 
resent. 

The children must then, as early as possible, 
become familiar with their own region. They 
should climb the highest points in their town, and 
learn how these heights affect drainage and tem- 
perature ; should study their native streams, and 
learn how they are formed, what their effect is upon 
the surface, and in what ways such streams are useful 
to man. The pupils should also be taught to repre- 
sent by a scale the bodies of land and water 
with which they have become familiar in this way. 
After a time a map of a continent may be put into 
their hands, and they may study it as they would 
study that which it represents, for it will really be 
to them an illustration of a continent. With their 
previous training, their imaginations, as they look 
at this map, will picture to them a great stretch of 



country bordered by lofty mountains and traversed 
by mighty rivers, and from this map they can learn 
all they need to know about the physical features of 
the continent. Nor is this all ; with the map and 
correct data from which to reason, a class can find 
out for themselves most of what is given in our school 
geographies. For instance, a child does not need 
to go to the printed matter of his book to learn 
that the Mississippi valley is a fertile section de- 
voted to agriculture and capable of supporting a 
dense population. In studying climate he learned 
that the prevailing winds of this region are from 
the south-west ; he sees they must take up mois- 
ture from the Gulf of Mexico ; he knows they are 
moving ,to cooler latitudes, that by the lowering 
of their temperature the moisture will be condensed 
and fall as rain, and that therefore this part of 
North America must be fertile. In studying the 
divisions of land and water on the coast, he 
learned of New England's excellent harbors ; in 
studying the mountains he discovered that in this 
region the}' approach the coast, that their slopes 
are, short, and, that therefore, the rivers must be 
short and rapid, and so furnish water power. The 



8 

causes that affect climate taught Mm about the 
coid current that comes down between our coast 
and the Gulf Stream, furnishing us with excellent 
fish. Having discovered all these things he sees 
that this populous section must be devoted to com- 
merce, manufacturing and fishing, and he will be 
able to tell where the manufacturing and commer- 
cial centres are found. The object of the Elemen- 
tary Course is so to train the children as to 
enable them, in the Scientific Course, to gain their 
knowledge in this way, instead of memorizing the 
printed matter in their text-books. 



GEOQKAPHY 



ELEMENTARY COURSE. 

This should begin when the children are about 
seven years of age, and should continue until they 
are ready for a scientific study of the earth. 
See topics for a "Scientific Course in G-eography." 



OBJECT OF THESE LESSONS. 

a. To give the children knowledge needed in 
the Scientific Course. 

b. To train them to observe and think. 

c. To train thern to express their thoughts well, 
or ally and in writins;. 



/ 



10 

LESSONS FOR THE FIRST YEAR. 

(Age about seven). 

I. FORM. 

Body 

( round. , P ( plane, 

■u 11 1 i o. surface ) l , 

a. ball -j long. ■< curved. 

(flat. ( 

straight. 



c. line -! 

( curved. 



II. SIZE. 

a. Exercises in estimating length by the eye, 
and with a ruler. 

b. Teach the table to 3 ft. = 1 yd. 

III. DIRECTIONS. 

North, south, east, west. 

IV. SURFACE OF THE REGION. 

a. Take the children out occasionally to study 
some brook, river, hill or mountain in the town. 

b. Conversation with the children (using a 
mould) upon these things, and also upon anything 
they can see and are interested in as snow, rain. 



11 



SUGGESTIONS UPON FIRST YEAR'S 
WORK. 

At the end of the year the children should be 
perfectly familiar with the forms, surfaces and 
lines named, ready to answer any question upon 
the direction or locality of objects known to them 
either inside or outside of the school-room, should 
be able to represent with considerable accuracy 
any length from one inch to three feet, to use the 
ruler readily in testing, should be acquainted with 
some of the natural features of the town and deeply 
interested in the things just about them. Drill upon 
the different topics must be carried through the 
year. 



LESSONS FOR SECOND YEAR. 
(Age about eight). 

I. FORM. 

a. Surface. b. Line. 

square, triangle. circumference, 

circle, ellipse, diameter, 

horizon, 



12 

II. SIZE. 

Teach by actual measurement the table to 8 fur. 
= 1 m. 

III. DIRECTION. 

North-east, south-east, north-west, south-west. 

IV. DRAWING BY SCAUE. 

a. Objects having length, (rulers, canes, fish- 
poles etc.) 

b. Floor of the room and objects on the floor. 

v. 

a. Continue the study of the surface of the 
tcwn by taking the children out ; 

MOUNTAINS, RIVERS, 

Slopes Source, bed, branches, 

Valleys banks, etc. 

Plains, Flow — where water comes 

Fertile Lands, from — 

Sterile Lands, Stones and other materials 

carried by the river. 
Effect upon the surface. 

Uses / navi g atior - 
\ water-power. 

Study lakes and ponds of the vicinity in the 
same way. 

b. Excite ideas of boundary lines, cities, vil- 
lages, towns. 



13 



VI. 

a. Make a mould of the town, representing a 
mile by an inch. 

h. Use the mould to teach those natural features 
of the town which the children have not been able 
to reach, and to revive a knowledge of those 
visited. 

VII. 

Special lessons upon 

a. The weather, 

b. Plants and animals of the town which are 
good for food, shelter or clothing. 

c. Important industries of the town, a lesson 
upon each. 

d. The railroads. 

e. With the aid of pictures and objects, give 
the children a little of the history of the town and 
some knowledge of its famous men. 

VIII. 

Topics the children may use in preparing their 
lessons, and in reciting, — 

1. Draw a map — scale one mile by one inch. 

2. Length and breadth of the town. 

3. Boundaries. 



14 



4. Coast — oceans, seas, gulfs etc. 

5. Interior — mountains, plains, rivers, lakes. 
q. Weather. 

7. Fertile lands, sterile lands. 

8. Things that grow. 

9. Useful animals. 

10. Industries. 

11. Railroads. 

12. Villages, cities. 

13. Interesting things. 



SUGGESTIONS UPON THE WORK OE 
THE SECOND YEAR. 

In giving the lesson upon the floor of the room 
remember that the object is not to teach the child 
to represent properly that surface, but is to excite 
in his mind ideas elementary to map drawing. It 
should not be given until the children are rapid 
and accurate in drawing lengths by their scale of 
one inch for one foot. 



15 

The picture when first drawn should be on a 
board on the north side of the room, and should 
be made by the pupils from their own observations 
and reasoning, and not by the teacher. Let them 
suppose the floor to be lifted up and represent one 
side after another, each one of the class, having of 
course, measured the sides for himself before the 
session began. If there is no board on the north 
side of your room, and no movable black board to 
be had in the building, obtain a piece of the black- 
board cloth sold so cheaply in all our large cities. 
If the suggestion made about drawing on the north 
board is followed, the children will mark properly 
north, south, east and west on the picture. 

Before they begin to draw upon other boards, 
fix this one point in their minds, that east is at 
the right hand as one faces the picture. Say 
nothing about west, that will take care of itself. 
They will then be able to distinguish between east 
and west in using any map ; a thing that a large 
number of pupils in the schools cannot do. 

This lesson is given to train the children to in- 
terpret a map with reference to the location of the 
different parts of the surface represented, their 



16 



direction from one another, and their relative sizes 
and positions. There would seem to be no special 
advantage in having the children spend a long 
time in learning to represent the desks, chairs and 
tables. One or two squares of pasteboard may 
be placed at different distances from the side of 
the room, and the children required to represent 
them in the right places on their diagrams of the 
floor. To do this, will necessitate hard thinking 
on their part, and will be a better preparation for 
map drawing, than to represent something the 
teacher has first represented for them. 

If your town is a very small one, represent a 
mile by two inches, otherwise do not change the 
scale. During the entire year one inch should 
represent one unit, either a foot or a mile. The 
effort the children would make to master a new 
scale would destroy the impression you wish to 
produce by the drawing. For the same reason 
do not use fractions, unless your class are so drilled 
in them as not to have the least difficult}?- with 
them ; i. e., place your pasteboard two feet from 
the north and three from the east side of the 
room, not two feet and a quarter from the north 
and three feet and a third from the east side. 



17 

LESSONS FOR THE THIRD YEAR. 

(Age about nine). 

I.— FORM. 

Other topics under space as degree, angle. 

II.— SIZE. 

a. Change the children's scale to one unit 
for ten. 

b. Teach a square mile. 

III.— SURFACE. 

Continue the lessons upon wet and dry surfaces. 
Give the class new names for natural features as 
you find it necessary and convenient to do so. 
(The children should now begin to make excur- 
sions to interesting points outside their own 
town.) 

IV.— OBJECT EESSONS. 

a. Weather, Clouds, Storms — rain, snow, thunder. 
Have the children keep a record, from their 
own observations of the temperature, direc- 
tion of the winds and the amount of rainfall 
during the year. 



18 

5. Plants and Animals. 

The children should begin to study the con- 
ditions necessary to the growth of plants 
and those favorable to animal life. They 
should have lessons on the most important 
edible plants of the region and their relative 
value ; also upon the best native woods 
and their uses. 

c. People of the region. 

Elementary lessons on races may be given. 

f Whites — German, Irish, French, 
| why they come to our country. 

1. Paces. <j Blacks — A little of their story. 

| (Inspire in the children love of 
(country and sympathy for all races.) 

2. Government. 

a. Give the children some idea of the govern- 
ment of both town and state. 

b. Tell them about our free schools, and the 
advantages they furnish poor boys and 
girls. 

3. Religion. 

Give them some idea of the people who 
worship many gods. Of people who wor- 



19 

ship one God as we do, but do not believe 
in Christ. Explain the term Christians. 

V.-MASS ACHUSETTS . 

Teach the children from a mould. Topics for the 
class to use in reciting on a state. 

I. Draw the map. 
II. Size, — length, breadth. 

III. Boundaries. 

IV. Represent on your maps and name : 
Coast. — oceans, bays, sounds, islands, penin- 
sulas, capes, isthmuses. Learn all you 
can about these by studying your map, 
then see if you can find something in- 
teresting about any of them in your books. 

Interior. — -mountains, slopes, plains, valleys, 
lakes, rivers. Interesting things about any 
of these. 

V. Weather. — Find if the winds in all parts 
of the state are like those of the town ; if 
the sea-coast is warmer or colder than 
other parts ; where the snow lasts longest. 
VI. Represent the fertile lauds, the sterile 
lands ; tell what grows on each. 



20 

VII. Name any animals useful to man for food, 

shelter or clothing. 
VIII. Tell what the people are doing in the 
different parts of the state. 
IX. Represent the railways running through 
your own town, and show where they begin 
and end in the state. 
X. Towns. — Represent those on the rail- 
ways, on the rivers, and tell what kind 
they are and why ; also on the coast ; a 
college town you know something about. 
XI. People. — Are they all white ; in what 
parts are the greatest number of foreigners 
found, wiry ; are there free schools every- 
where ; who is the governor ? 
XII. History. — In what year did the Maj-- 
flower come here ; where did she land ; 
whom did she bring; what did thejr come 
for ; whom did they find here ? 



SUGGESTIONS FOR THE THIRD YEAR. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

a. Excite an idea of a state, give the meaning 
of the term Massachusetts, show the state-seal. 



21 

b. As the children are now accustomed to 
represent ten miles by an inch, they can discover 
the length and breadth of the state for themselves, 
and also draw their map from the mould. 

c. Train them to gain their knowledge as much 
as possible from the mould, that is, objectively. 
They are prepared to do this, because the mould 
of their town was the representation of a surface 
they had studied by making little excursions to all 
prominent points in it. Train them also to 
describe well what they see. Encourage origin- 
ality of expression, but insist upon pure, clear, 
English. 

d. Teach from the mould any natural features 
not found in the town, as peninsula, cape, gulf 
and bay. As new industries, unlike those of the 
town, are studied, give special object lessons upon 
them. 

e. Appeal to the eye as much as possible. 

The fertile sections may be represented upon 
the mould by powdered green crayon. A bit of 
granite and of wheat placed upon the mould to 
show where these are produced in the state, will 
interest the children and aid their memories. 



22 

/. Appeal to the reason as much as possible. 
Since the children have had proper lessons on the 
effect of slope upon rivers, and have studied the 
surface of Massachusetts, they can readily be 
made to understand why it is a manufacturing 
state. 

g. Give the children a little of the history of 
their state. Story of the Indians, of the May- 
flower ; the date of settlement ; what presidents 
Massachusetts has furnished the country. 

h. With the aid of pictures, special lessons may 
be given upon interesting things, such as Bunker 
Hill Monument, Plymouth and Dighton Rocks, 
Hoosac Tunnel. 

i. Associate the work of the reading class with 
that of the geography. If there is something in 
the reading book about Boston or Plymouth let 
that be the reading lesson the day the geography 
lesson is upon towns. 

j. Now and 'then let the children commit to 
memory some fine bit of literature that relates to 
something in the geography lesson. 

7c. Have the children review, both by talking 
and by writing, the oral lessons you give them. 



LESSONS FOR THE FOURTH YEAR. 

(Age about ten). 

I. — FORM. 

Teach with the aid of a globe and other objects 
what the form of the earth is ; that we live upon 
the outside ; and that we are kept upon the earth 
by attraction. (The last may be taught with the 
aid of a magnet.) 

II. - SIZE. 

Excite some idea of the great size of the earth 
by leading the children to find out how long it 
would take to travel around it in a boat, or by 
train, or on foot if such a thing were possible. 

III. —USE OF GLOBE. 

With the globe teach them how much of the 
surface of the earth is land, how much is water, 
and the position, relative sizes and names of the 
continents and the oceans etc. etc. 

IV. — ORAL LESSONS ON SURFACE. 

Continue the oral lessons upon dry and wet sur- 
faces, but make the knowledge of the children 
more general, not confined to their own locality. 
a. Dry surface. 



24 

Take up anything under highlands and lowlands 
that the class do not know, and that they need to 
know in order to study intelligently the surface of 
North America. (See topics for the children to 
use in studying a continent to determine what 
more must be taught your class, and topics under 
land, water and atmosphere in the Scientific 
Course for a plan.) 

b. Teach more of the sources, direction and 
confluence of rivers, 

c. Uses of lakes and rivers — drainage, naviga- 
tion, water-power, irrigation. 

d. Lessons that will give the children a more 
extended knowledge of the effects of water, es- 
pecially of erosion, — ravines, canons, waterfalls, 

rapids. 

e. Lessons upon special natural features, such 
as the Grand Canon of the Colorado, the Falls of 
Niagara. 

V. — CLIMATE. 

a. Require the children to make observations 
every day upon the direction of the wind, the 
forms of moisture, the temperature, /and the effect 
of elevation, slope, and soil upon temperature. 



25 

b. Give them lessons at appropriate times upon 
these things and upon storms. 

VI. — NORTH AMERICA AND THE UNITED STATES. 

a. Teach the children from a mould of the 
county. 

b. Have them recite from maps drawn by them- 
selves. 

Topics, the children in the intermediate grades, 
may use in reciting upon a continent, and upon an 
important political division like the United States. 
I. Form — draw the map. 
II. Size — length, breadth, tell how long -it 
would take to ride across the country ; 
to walk across it. 
III. Position — boundaries ; if you have stud- 
ied parallels show where the parallel of 
your town crosses the country. 

IV. Land and water of the coast. 

a. While drawing the map name and locate each impor- 
tant peninsula, cape, isthmus, sea, gulf, etc., as you 
represent. 

6. Represent and describe the islands of each ocean, and 
tell of any important sea, bay, or other body of water 
formed by them. 



26 



c. Tell anything interesting you have learned of the 
coast or of any body of land and water near it. 

V. Land and water inside the coast. 

a. Find where the highlands are, the lowlands. 

b. Represent the mountain ranges, giving their slopes 

and the highest point in each system. 

c. Represent and describe each river system. 

d. Interesting things about mountains and rivers. 

VI. Climate. 

a. What the summer winds are, the winter winds, which 

bring rain and which snow. 

b. Where snow is always found, where never. 

c. Compare the climate of the coast and of the interior. 

VII. Productions and animals. 

a. Tell where the fertile, sterile and mining sections are 

found. 

b. Name the plants, animals and minerals of each sec- 
tion useful to man. 

VIII. Tell what the people are doing in these 
different sections, why ? 

IX. How get from one part of the country to 
another. 

a. What river systems may be used for this purpose? 



•27 



b. Represent at least one railway that runs from ocean 
to ocean and (unless it runs through your town), 
represent also the railway that connects your town 
with the main line. 

X. Towns. 

a. Represent and tell something about the largest towns 

along this railroad, on each river system and on the 
coast. 

b. Any other towns you are interested in. 

c. How would you go by water from Chicago to New 

Orleans? Tell what goods, if a merchant, yon would 
take with you and what bring back. Visit some 
places of intetest on the way and describe them. 

d. Make up questions like " c " to ask the class, but be 

sure you can answer your own questions. 

XI. People of different parts of the country. 

a. Are they white? 

b. Do they all believe in one God or are some of them 

pagans? 

c. Is the ruler a king or a president? Tell his name and 

something about him. 

XII. History. 

When was the country discovered, by whom? (For 
other countries some of the questions must be changed a 

little.) 



28 



XIII. Political Divisions. 

a. Kepresent on your map the political divisions of North 

America, giving the boundaries and name of each. 

b. Tell which of these divisions are independent, and 
■which belong to some foreign power. Name the 
form of government of each. 

Special study of the United States, using topics 
like those for the study of a continent. 

SUGGESTIONS. 

a. "When the children are ready to study the political 

divisions of the United States' do not have them study 
each state separately, but in a group; i. e., let them 
study the New England States, the Middle Atlantic 
States etc. 

b. Do not separate a map of a group altogether from the 

map of the whole. To do so, confuses the children 
with reference to the relation of a group to other 
groups and to the whole country. If, for want of 
space and time, you are obliged to allow the children 
to represent and study a group by itself, have on the 
board a large map of the United States, and during 
each recitation require one pupil to draw his map as 
a part of the large map, Avhile the other members of 
the class are drawing the group simply. 



29 

LESSONS FOB THE FIFTH YEAR. 

(Age about eleven). 
I. 

Lessons of the Fourth Year under I. and II. re- 
viewed and extended. 

II. 

Continue the lessons given with the aid of the 
globe. 

a. New terms denned. 

1. Rotation — axis poles \ ° J' 

■ I south. 

2. Circles — large, small. 

3. Large circles — equator meridian circle, meridian. 

4. Small circles— parallels of latitude, tropics j caSce?™' 

polar circles { ^ ctic . 

5. Zones — torrid, temperate $ north. 

( south. 

frigid f north. 
\ south. 

6. Latitude — north, south. 

7. Longitude — east, west. 

8. Hemispheres — north and south, east and west. 

b. What makes clay and night ? 

c. Da}-, night and twilight of the frigid zones. 

d. What we shall see if we travel north, east, 
south and west. 



30 
e. Who live opposite us ; their daj^ and night? 

III. 

Surface — new terms taught which the class are 
likely to come upon in studying. 

The Continents. 

1. Coast — archipelago. 

2. Mountains — range, system, peak, pass, alp, ben, 
sierra. 

3. Plateau. 

4. Plains — prairie; savanna, steppes, selvas, pampas, 
desert, oasis. 

5. Valley — river valley. 

f estuary. 

n -n- 4.1 I firth. 

6 River — mouth -j fi -, 
[delta. 
Cascade, rapids, waterfalls. 



IV. 

SPECIAL STUDY OF THE REMAINING 
CONTINENTS. (Suggestions). 

FOR THE FOURTH AND FIFTH TEARS. 

The children must learn the general topics — see topics 
for the study of the United States and of a continent in 



31 

Fourth Year. 1. Form; II. Size, III. Position, IV. 

^ . C water 
Coast (land 

Y. Interior < and so on to XII. They will then 

be able to recite without being questioned. 

The children have made a thorough study of 
their own town by studying it outside of the school- 
room, and so have experimental knowledge of all 
divisions of land and water within their reach. 

They have studied their state, and have had 
lessons given them upon those forms of wet and 
dry surface not found in the town. Object lessons 
upon climate, and plant and animal life have been 
given them, and they have also learned to draw by 
a scale a surface with which the} 7 are familiar. 
The object lessons given the children have supplied 
them with terms and with the information they 
need to use in preparing their lessons. They are 
therefore ready to begin the work marked out for 
them in the Intermediate Geographies, which is 
largely that elementary study of the continents 
that precedes the child's entrance to the grammar 
school. 



32 

If required to do so by the school-board, begin 
to teach the earth as a whole by giving the chil- 
dren some idea of its form, size, motions, parallels, 
meridians, also of latitude and longitude. Such 
topics may be presented to a child, in a very 
simple and elementary way by the aid of balls, 
globes and other objects, still it is better to put 
them off as long as possible, because a young 
child's notions of these things are likely to be 
somewhat vague. If taught, difficult scientific 
definitions should be postponed until the Scientific 
Course. 

Make everything as real as possible to the 
children. As soon as parallels of latitude and me- 
ridians are taught, begin to question the class daily 
concerning the circles passing through the town. 
Have a child tell whether in going home to his 
dinner he passed along a meridian or a parallel or 
neither, whether he walked towards the north pole 
or towards the equator . Let him see that eveiy 
place on the earth is south of the north pole and 
north of the south pole ; that places on the equator 
have no latitude ; places on the prime meridian, 
no longitude, etc. 



33 



A small ball to represent the sun may be sus- 
pended above the globe. The children will see 
that one half the globe is in the light and one half 
in darkness. By rotating the globe you can make 
them understand how day and night are caused. 

If a small ball be suspended as suggested you 
can, by elevating or depressiug the north pole of 
the globe, show the children where the direct rays 
of the sun are falling each day ; and can also 
teach them that sometimes there is no day in the 
polar regions and at other times no night.. Tell 
them how the sun appears to move when it does 
not go below the horizon. Also give them some 
idea of the long twilight of these polar regions and 
the advantage it is to the people. 

Some of these lessons may be given upon the 
globe as if the children were travelling with you 
north, south, east and west from their own town. 
Travelling north with them into the Arctic regions, 
you may with the aid of pictures and specimens of 
all kinds, take up the appearance of the country, 
the climate, productions, animals, people, their 
mode of life, religion, dress, customs. Talk to 
the class about the children of the country, what 



34 

they eat, wear, whether or not they are in school 
to-day. Taking the class east to the Atlantic ; you 
may teach something of its size, of the movements 
of its water and of the icebergs and animals found 
in it. With the aid of the globe the children can 
find what people live on the other side of the earth, 
and that it is night there when it is day here. 

Lessons upon surface, climate and life should be 
continued by the teacher, objects being used when 
possible ; when not, pictures and drawings upon the 
board. Materials for such lessons may be found 
in any good geography. It does not require much 
skill to enlarge for the board the pictures found in 
the geographies, and to color them appropriately. 
Such pictures are of great value in teaching nat- 
ural features, such as Niagara Falls, G-rand Canon 
of the Colorado, Yellowstone Park, Big Trees of 
California, Vesuvius. The following books may 
be helpful to } t ou in preparing your oral lessons. 

" Our World," No. II. Miss Hall, Ginn & Co. 

"Eyes Eight," Adam Stwin, D. Lothrop & 
Co. Boston. 

" America Illustrated," Williams. 

" Scribner's Geographical Reader " and 
*' Primer." 



35 

"Elementary Lessons in Physical Geogra- 
phy," Geikie, Macmillan. 

"The World at Home;" a Series of Geogra- 
phical Readers, T. Nelson & Sons, London. 

Special Lessons that may be given the children 
while studying the different continents. 

NORTH AMERICA. 

1. Natural Features. 

Niagara Falls, Yosemite, Yellowstone region, 
Grand Canon of the Colorado, Big Trees of 
California, Mammoth Cave of Kentucky. 
Other interesting things such as the Panama 
Canal. 

2. Plants. 

Rice, wheat, sugar, cotton, potato, tobacco, 
some woods. 

3. Animals. 

Cow, horse, bees, cod, whale, oyster. 

4. Minerals, mines and quarries. 

Gold, silver, copper, coal, iron, salt, granite, 
marble, etc. 



36 

SOUTH AMERICA. 

1 . Natural features . 

Amazon. 

2. Plants. 

Coffee, chocolate, caoutchouc, woods. 

3. Animals. 

Llama, ostrich. 

4. Minerals. 

Diamond. 

EUROPE. 

1 . Natural features . 

Lake Districts of England and Scotland, Fin- 
gal's Cave, Rhine, Alpine Region, Vesuvius ; 
Pillars of Hercules. 

2. Plants. 

Flax. 

3. Animals. 

Reindeer, chamois, snail, sponge. 

4. Minerals. 

Tin. 



37 

5. Interesting things. 

The Alhambra in Spain. 
The ruins of Italy and of Greece. 
Pompeii and Herculaneuin. 
The Ear of Dionysius. 

6. Expressions to explain, 

Albania, Land o' cakes, Emerald Isle. 
Sent to Coventry. 

From Land's End to John O'Groats' house. 
Kissed the Blarney Stone. 
Escape Scylla and fall into Charybdis. 
The crescent in Europe is waning before 
the cross. 

ASIA. 

1 . Nat ura I features . 

Himalayas, Ganges, Indus. 

2. Plants. 

Palm tree, tea plant, bamboo. 

3. Animals. 

Elephant, camel, silk worm, cashmere 
goat, pearls and pearl fisheries. 
Other interesting things. 

Chinese Wall, Canton. 



38 

AFRICA. 

1. Natural features. 

Nile, deserts — mirage, sand storms. 

2. Other interesting things. 

Suez Canal, Pyramids. 

KINDS OF INFORMATION. 

Avoid crowding the minds of the children with 
unimportant facts. Children learn the names of 
too many capes, the lengths of too many rivers, 
the population of too many towns, and do not 
learn enough concerning a country's resources and 
those things which determine the location and the 
development of its people. 

The children must have a general knowledge of 
a continent's physical features. This may be 
given them by requiring them, when upon a con- 
tinent, to begin each day's recitation by drawing 
quickly upon the board a map, naming as they 
represent the most important divisions of the 
coast, and afterwards inserting the mountain and 
river systems. Seven or eight minutes are all the 
time needed for this part of the exercise. In this 
way the prominent physical features of the country 



39 



will be forever fixed in the child's mind. Remem- 
ber that the object of this map-drawing is not to 
train the child to draw beautiful maps, but to aid 
him in recitation and in retaining his knowledge. 



SCIENTIFIC COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY. 



A course for the grammar grades and for the 
lower classes in the high school. 

The topics of this course are so arranged that, 
before the children take up the special study of 
each continent for the last time, they are made 
familiar with physical geography, a knowledge of 
which is necessary to an intelligent study of a 
continent, especially of its highest form of life, 
man. The earth is first studied as a whole by 
taking up its Form, Size and Motions ; then its 
parts, the Land, Water and Air are studied. This 
work is followed b} r a special study of each con- 
tinent. 



40 

Define Geography, 

The Earth as a Whole. — Form, Size, Motions. 

I. — FOKM. 

a. Body. Solid. 

Spherical Sphere 

Hemispherical Hemisphere 

Spheroidal C prolate Spheroid J prolate 

I oblate \ oblate 

b. Apparent form of the earth. 

1. Show that hills and mountains have no effect upon 

the kind of surface. 

2. The earth appears to have a plane surface. 

c. Real form of the earth. 

1. Show that when we look at a small part of a curved 

surface it looks plane, therefore we canuot tell by 
looking at it what the surface of the earth is but it 
has been found to be curved. 

2. Not equally curved. The earth is a spheroidal 
body. 

d. Show that a spherical body represents the earth. 

e. Some simple proofs that the earth's surface is 

curved. 
1. The way in which bodies moving over its surface 

disappear. 
2 Circumnavigation. 



41 

IL — SIZE. 

a. Circles of the earth. Circumferences. 

Large Large 

Small Small 

Diameter. 

b. Average circumference of the earth. 

c. Average diameter of the earth. 

d. Difference in length of the diameter from north 

to south and one of those from east to west. 

III. — MOTIONS OF THE EARTH. 

ROTATION. 

a. Axis, rotation, poles, equator defined. 
&. Special study of the axis of the earth. 

1. Eelation to the direction of rotation. 

2. Relation to a person at the equator ; at either pole ; 

at a point between the equator and either pole ; 
to a person in your town. 

c. Eotation. 

2. Causes day and night. 

2. Causes the apparent daily motion of the heavenly 
bodies. 

d. Poles. 

1. Show to what the north pole points and how to find 
the north star. 



42 

2. Place of the north star to a person at the equator, 
at either pole, at a point between the equator and 
either pole, to a person in the town. 

POSITION OF A PLACE ON THE EARTH. 

a. Latitude — north and south denned. 

1. Parallels of latitude and their names. 

2. How find latitude from a globe, from a map. 

3. Comparative latitude. 

St. Petersburg, Mount St. Elias. 
London, James' Bay. 
Boston, Rome. 
New York, Constantinople. 
Richmond, Athens. 

b. Longitude — east and west. 

1. Meridian circle, meridian, prime meridian, longi- 

tude, defined. 

2. Names of the meridians. 

3. How find longitude from a globe, from a map. 

4. Comparative longitude. 

5. Degree of longitude. 

1. Length at the equator, at the poles, at 
sixty degrees north or south latitude. 
Nautical mile. 

c. Explain the term antipodal points. 

MOTION CONTINUED. REVOLUTION. 

a. Define revolution and orbit, and give the time 
and direction of the earth's revolution. 



43 

b. Tropics — Cancer, Capricorn. 

c. Polar Circles — Arctic, Antarctic. 

d. Zones — Torrid, Temperate, Frigid. 

e. Seasons-Torrid {"£* TOmp {»£**, **»{%££ 

autumn, 
winter. 

Map of the whole earth, so that children may 
understand how meridians and parallels are re- 
presented. Represent some of the important 
meridians, as the prime, the 180th, the 90th, 45th, 
135th west, upon a black globe ; also the equator, 
tropics, polar circles ; elevate the north pole and 
then represent the ball upon the board. Represent 
the eastern hemisphere in the same way. 

Hemispheres — Eastern, Western; Northern, Southern; 
Land and Water, 



THE PARTS OF THE EARTH. 

Land, Water, Atmosphere. 

I, — LAND. 

Divide into Continents and Islands, by showing 
that a continent is a basin- shaped portion of land. 

SPECIAL STUDY OF A CONTINENT. 

Coast — peninsular, capes, promontories, isth- 
muses. 



44 



Relief — highlands, lowlands. 

[ C range, system, peak, 

! mountains, -j group, volcano ; 

TT . , , , ( where found. 

a. Highlands -j plateaaS; 

| ,, f longitudinal, trans- 

^ valleys, | verse> 

Thills, 

b. Lowlands -j plains, 

(_ vallej'S. 

c. Advantages of elevation. 

1. Effects drainage. 

2. Affects the distribution of moisture. 

3. Gives variety to climate. 

II.— WATER. 

Sea. 

1 -p^ ... fsaltness, color, floor, depths, 
1. Description J islands# 

Wrature W* 

j polar ( icebergs 
^ waters < ice fields 
( ice floes, 
oceans. 

{ seas — border, mediter- 
armsj ranean — gulfs, baj-s, 
] channels, straits, 
^ sounds, 
waves, cause. 



Divisions 



Movements < tides. 



currents \ equatorial; direction 

( polar, ( of. 



45 



4. Surface Currents . 

a. North Atlantic Ocean* 

Warm Currents — Equatorial, Carri- 
bean, Mexican. 

Gulf Stream — temperature, shape, 
effect of spreading. 

(A current by northern 

t.. . . | Europe. 

Divisions^ M v 1 , , 

j Mediterranean current, re- 

[ turn current. 

SARGASSO SEA. 

Cold Currents — Greenland, Baffin Bay, 
Labrador, United States Current. 

b. South Atlantic. 

Warm Currents — Brazilian Current, 
Southern connecting current. 
Cold Currents — Antarctic Drift. 

c. Pacific Ocean. 

Antarctic Drift, Peruvian, southern- 
equatorial, northern-equatorial, counter- 
equatorial, Japan, Northern Pacific, 
Californian. 

d. Indian Ocean. 

Equatorial, Bay of Bengal, Arabian 
Sea, Mozambique, Return Current. 



46 

1. Compare the temperature of the 

eastern and western coast of 
North America. 

2. The eastern coast of North America 

and the western coast of Europe. 

3. The western coast of North America 

and the eastern coast of Asia. 

4. The eastern and the western coast 

of South America. 

Water of the Land. 

Explain the Circulation of the Moisture of the 

Earth. 
Moisture Received — Some sinks, some carried 

back to the ocean. 

1. That which sinks. 

Springs. f constant, periodical. 

„ | cold, warm — hot, geysers. 
a. Classes of, , salt< 

| Mineral j medicinal . 

(^Explain causes of each. 

h. Explain Wells — common, artesian. 

( feed lakes, 
c. Underground Rivers. J flow back 
(_ to the sea. 

Water carried back to the sea from the surface. 



47 



1. Rivers. 

a. Recall terms previously taught, as source, 
bed, mouth, and teach new terms such as 
channel, tributary, basin, water shed, river 
system. 

b. Formation — springs, lakes, snows, gla- 
ciers. 

c. Uses — drainage, navigation, irrigation, 
water power. 

( caused by current and debris. 

d. Effect — Erosion ^ forms ravines, canons, 

( bottom lands. 

e. Deposition of debris causes deltas and 
sandbars. 

2. Lakes. 

a. Recall terms such as outlet, inlet, head, 
foot and explain kinds, salt, fresh, and the 
cause of each. 

b. Source of Supply. 

i elevation 

c. Formation— Basins formed by ] erosion 

J ( debris 

d. Uses — navigation, purify rivers, regu- 
late the flow of rivers. 

III. ATMOSPHERE. 

a. Height, Composition, contains what? 

b. Pressure. 

1. Due to what? 



48 

2. Amount at the sea level. 

3. Effect of altitude. 

4. Varies with temperature and moisture. 

5. Thermometer, Isotherm. 

6. Barometer. Isobar. 

c. Moisture in the Atmosphere. 

1. Saturated Air, Dry Air. 

2. Condensation. Dew point. 

3. How may saturated air be changed to dry air. 

4. How may dry air be changed to saturated 
air. 

5. Forms of Moisture. 

t. t . , r. , -, (nimbus, cirrus, 

Mist — fog, cloud < t ' . ' 

°' ( cumulus, stratus. 

Rain. 
Snow 
Hail. 

d. Motion of the Air. 

1. Cause. 

2. Wind. 

Anemoscope. 

Kinds of winds — currents, storms . 
I. Special Study of Currents of Air. 

a. System of — Ascending, Upper, De- 
scending, Surface, Areas of low and high 
barometer. 



49 

b. Currents of each Zone. 
Torrid Zone. 

Equatorial calm belt or area of low barometer. 

Upper or equatorial currents. 

Cancer and Capricorn calms or areas of high 
barometer. 

Trade Winds I Northeast. 

( Southeast. 

North Temperate Zone. 

Calm belts at the sixtieth parallels. 
Southwest equatorial a return trade in summer. 
Northeast polar wind in winter, deflected to 
north-west over eastern part of North 
America and Asia. 
South Temperate Zone, 

North-west equatorial in summer. 
South-east polar in winter. 
Frigid Zones. 

Polar winds on the surface except about six 

weeks in summer. 
c. Special study of the Equatorial calm belt. 

1. Cause of change in position of. 

2. Passes from fourteen degrees north to two de- 
grees south. 

3. Causes of Rain in the Equatorial calm belt. 



50 

4. Explain Rainy and Dry Seasons of the torrid 
zone. Where two seasons, where four. 

I. Some Local Winds of the Earth. 

1. Monsoons — Indian Ocean, Gulf of Guinea, 
Mexico. 

2. Land and Sea Breezes. 

3. Etesian Winds. 

4. Desert Winds — Solano, Sirocco, Harmat- 
tan, Khamsin, Simoon, Fohn. 

5. Mountain Winds — Bora, Mistral, Puna, 
Pamperos, Northers of Texas. 

II. Special Study of Storms. 

a. Kinds — rain, snow, hail, thunder, sand, 



cyclonic < 



hurricane, 
typhoon 



b. Rain Storms. 

1. Occasioned by a current's ascending from 

the surface of the earth to the upper 
regions. 

2. Occasioned by a current's ascending high- 

land. 

3. Occasioned by a current's moving into 

cooler latitudes. 



51 

4. Show that when a current descends into 

lowlands, or moves into warm latitudes 
it must become dry. 

5. Rainfall of different zones. 

Rainfall decreases from the equatorial 
to the polar regions. 
Decreases from the coast to the interior. 
Amount of rainfall in the Old World, 
in the New World. 
6. Explain the regions of greatest and least 
rainfall of each continent. 

c. Snow storms. 

1 . Occasioned how. 

2. Annual amount of snow. 

3. Temperature of the air at different heights 
The snow Line. 

4. Permanent snows — glaciers, avalanches. 

5 . Uses of snow. 

d. Hail- Storms. 

1. Hailstones — Form, size, structure. 

2. Cause of hail-storms. 

3. Geographical distribution of. 

4. Track of the storm. 

5. Destructiveness of. 



52 



e. Thunder storms. 
1.- Cause of. 



2. 



T . , f . (kinds of|* hai ?' ba11 ; 
Lightning < \ sheet, heat. 

(^ cause of 



3. Thunder — cause of. 

4. How determine the distance of a storm. 

5. Geographical Distribution of Thunder- 
storms. 

6. Destructiveness of . 

7. Use of lis;htninoj-rods. 
/. C3' clones. 

1. Cause. 

2. Direction of wind about the calm centre. 

3. Rate of the wind about the calm centre. 

4. Area covered by the storm. 

5. Violence of the storm. 

6. Motion of. 

Path in the northern and in the southern 

hemisphere. 
Cause of the westerly motion of the storm 

in the torrid zone. 
Cause of the easterly motion in the tem- 
perate zones. 

Rate at which the storm moves. 



53 

Where are these storms most violent? 
g. Storms of the United States. 

1. Summer Storms — Rain, Thunder, Hail. 

2. Winter Storms — Northeasters. 

Note. — As rain, thunder and hail-storms have been 
thoroughly taught under the general topic, Storms, see 
pages 50 and 51, the teacher will have little to present 
relative to the Summer storms of the United States. From 
physical geographies and from such works as Prof. 
Loomis's Treatise on Meteorology, interesting facts con- 
cerning remarkable storms in our country, the average 
rainfall of different localities, etc., etc., maybe obtained 
to give the class at this point. 



NORTHEASTERS. 

a. What are they: 

b. Where do the} T originate? 

c. Direction of the storm and rate of motion. 

d. Changes in the barometer during the passage of 
the storm. 

e. Veering of wind during the passage of the storm. 
When the western part of a storm passes over a 

place. 



54 

When the centre passes over a place. 

When the eastern part passes over a place. 
/. Rainfall in different parts of the storm. 
g. Duration of the storm. 

3. Signal Service of tha United States. 
a. Show how a storm may be predicted. 
b: When was the Signal Service established ; at 

what stations ; for what purpose? 
c. The service is under the control of what de- 
partment of the government ? 

Explain the observations made, the instruments 
used and the signals given. 

Use of the Signal Service. 

CLIMATE. 

Climate is affected by. 

a. Latitude. 

b. Elevation of the land. 

c. Slope of the land. 

d. Nearness to the Sea. 

e. Prevailing winds. 

f. Ocean currents. 

Life depending upon Climate. 
I. Plant Life. 



00 

a. Show that the growth of the plant depends up- 
on heat and moisture or upon climate. 

b. Give a general description of the plants of the 
different zones. 

c. Plants useful to man are commonly, 
Trees — deciduous, evergreen, conifers, 
Shrubs — deciduous, evergreen, conifers, 

TT . C meadow, fpeas, ,.,, (roots. 

Herbs —grasses ) ce reals, pulse ? beans, edlMe \ I™™ 
C bamboo, c lentils leaves'. 

cl. Give, with a diagram, the characteristic or re- 
presentative plants of each zone. 

e. Give, with a diagram, the particular plants of 
each zone. 

/. Show that, on account of the lowering of the 
temperature of the land by elevation, there is a 
vertical distribution of plants corresponding to 
the horizontal distribution we have studied. 

II. ANIMAL LIFE. 

a. Show that animal life depends upon climate 
and vegetation. 

b. Give a general description of the animals of 
the different zones. 

c. Animals useful to man are wild and domestic. 



56 

d. Characteristic animals of each zone. 

e. Particular animals of each zone. 

/. Most important life of the earth is man. 

III. HUMAN FAMILY. 

a. Give the population of the world. 

b. Races — Caucasian, Mongolian, Ethiopian, 
Malay, American. 

c Give the location of the different races. 
cl. Special stud}' of the Caucasian. 

1. Divisions — Aiyan, Semitic, Hamitic. 

2. Show that this is a linguistic division, 
e. Special study of the An- an race. 

1. Divisions — Slavonic, Germanic, Keltic, 
Romanic races in Europe ; Persians ana 
Hindoos in Asia. 

2. Name the sub-divisions of the European 
divisions of the Aryan race, and tell where 
they are found. 

Things that affect the development of a race. 

I— MODE OF LIFE. 

Lessons on Occupations. 

Agriculture, Grazing, Lumbering, Mining, 
Fishing, Manufacturing, 



57 



Commerce I Jom^tio. 



Means of Communication \ raili ; oa <* s > 

( navigation. 



Art _ f industrial, 
Arts \ fine. 



II.— RELIGION. 

a. Monotheistic. 

( Catholicism, 
Christianity < Protestantism, 

( Religion of the Greek Church. 
Judaism. 
Mohammedanism. 

b. Polytheistic or Pagan Religions. 

Brahminism. 
Buddhism. 
Idolatry. 
Feticism. 
o. Confucianism. 

d. Sacred Books of each monotheistic religion 
and of Brahminism and Buddhism. 

e. Number and location of believers in the 
different religions. 

/. With what race or races did the monotheistic 
religions originate? 



58 

g. "With what race or races did the highest 

polytheistic religions originate ? 
Things that Affect Development continued. 

III.— GOVERNMENT. 

a. Republican, 

b. Monarch! al. 
Limited, 
Absolute. 

c. What are the best forms of government? 
Why? 

d. What races have the highest forms? 

e. What countries have the highest forms ? 

/. Had a republican form of government been 
tried by any people before our own republic 
was established ; if so, with what success? 

g. United States Government. 

Departments — Legislative, Judicial, Execu- 
tive. 

Divisions of the Departments and Duties of each. 

° \ House of Representatives. 

T r • i ( Supreme Court of the U. S. 
Judicial ^ Inferior Courts of th e u. S. 



59 

-^ ( President. 

Executive j CMn ^ 

Give the names of the present cabinet. 
Terms applied to races according to their state 
of development. 

a. Uncivilized — savage, barbarian, nomads. 

b. Civilized — civilized, enlightened. 

c. Semi-civilized. 

Of the races studied, who are enlightened, etc? 
Account for the condition of each race. 



The pupils have now made a study of the form, 
size and motions of the earth ; the configuration 
and relief of the land masses ; atmospheric and 
oceanic movements ; climate, plant and animal 
life, and especially man, including the distribution 
of races, and all conditions affecting this distribu- 
tion ; religion, government and whatever affects 
the civilization of races. They are, therefore, 
ready for a more intelligent and a more exhaustive 
study of each continent, than they were prepared 
for by age and by attainment when in the inter- 
mediate schools. 



60 

In studying a continent the class may take up 
those topics relating to the whole, those presenting 
the parts, and those which give a knowledge of the 
continent's fitness as a home for man. 

The following topics for the class to use in 
preparing their lessons, are made out in accordance 
with this plan. 

CONTINENT. 

TOPICS PRESENTING A CONTINENT AS A WHOLE. 

a. Form. 

b. Introduction. 

c. Size. 

Greatest Length. 
Greatest breadth. 
Area. 

d. Position. 

Latitude. 

Longitude. 

Boundaries. 

TOPICS PRESENTING THE PARTS OF A CONTINENT. 

1. Outside and on the Coast. 



61 

a. Divisions of Water : 

Oceans. 
Seas, etc. 

b. Divisions of Land : 

Islands. 
Peninsulas. 
Capes. 
Isthmuses. 
Inside the Coast. 

a. Divisions of Land, or Highlands and 

Lowlands. 

b. Divisions of Water, or River Systems. 



TOPICS RELATING TO THE LIFE UPON THE CONTINENT. 



a. Climate. 



f Latitude. 



Elevation of the Land. 

mu- j-x. 4. s* 4.1 Slope of the Land. 
Things that affect < AT 1 , ,, 

& ] Nearness to the Sea. 

| Prevailing Winds. 

(. Ocean Currents. 

b. Productions of Different Sections. 

Fertile and Sterile Sections — Productions. 

c. Animals Useful to Man. 



Water Communications. < . 



62 

d. Occupations Carried on in Different Sections. 

e. Exports and Imports. 

/. Great Tlwroughfares. 

Natural. 
Artificial. 

Railroads. 
g. Important Towns. 

Along these routes. 

Manufacturing towns* 
h. People. 

Races. 

Religion. 

Government. 

Advance in Civilization. 

History. 

i. Political Divisions of the Continent, 



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